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However, a growing body of evidence now unequivocally demonstrates that smoking negatively influences the incidence, severity, and outcomes of a wide spectrum of hepatic conditions, including metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), alcohol-related liver disease (ALD), chronic viral hepatitis (HBV and HCV), primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)

A comprehensive meta-analysis of nine casecontrol studies involving over 21,000 participants demonstrated that individuals who had ever smoked had a significantly higher risk of PBC compared to never-smokers (pooled OR: 1.31

Certain diabetes medications, particularly pioglitazone and GLP-1 receptor agonists (such as liraglutide or semaglutide), have shown benefits for liver health beyond glucose control in research studies

Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)